Abstract
Identity is a complex and intricate construct that is often easy to experience and difficult to define. Extensive research reveals that individuals with conflicting identities may demonstrate unhealthy or risky behavior: women in science have a higher instance of eating disorders (Silverstein et al., 1990), and Men of Color who have Sex with Men (MCSM) are more likely to engage in risky health behaviors (O’Donnell et al., 2002; Wolitski et al., 2006). These studies focus on populations with identities that are assumed to conflict, but lack an individual difference measure assessing perceived or experienced conflict. Stress experienced from considering two discrepant identities simultaneously may moderate risky behavior in these communities. The Dual Identity Distress Scale prompts participants to consider two identities (e.g., race, gender, occupation) simultaneously, and assesses the resulting distress (e.g., “When I am surrounded by Female individuals, I try to downplay occupation as a scientist”). Qualitative analyses reveal the dimensions and elements of dual identity, while quantitative analyses correlate dual identity distress with self-esteem and behavior.Prior Literature
The current research addresses how different facets of identity interact and the affect elicited when considering more than one identity at a time. Extensive research demonstrates the deleterious effects of individuals with conflicting identities: women in science have a higher instance of eating disorders (Silverstein et al., 1990), and Men of Color who have Sex with Men (MCSM) are more likely to engage in risky health behaviors (O’Donnell et al., 2002; Wolitski et al., 2006). However, these studies focus on populations with identities that are assumed to conflict, but do not measure actual perceived or experienced conflict by individuals, which may moderate the behavioral effects prevalent in these communities.Social Identity Theory: Social, or collective, identity, is defined as the portion of an individual’s self-concept that is derived from perceived membership in relevant social groups (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). We strive to maintain positive self-concepts, and engage in behavior designed to repair the self when under threat including competition and individual mobility. Prior research investigating the relationship between identity, attitudes and behavior reveals that positive feelings about one's social groups is correlated with self-concepts, attitudes, and behavior.
Measuring Identity: Several researchers have developed and validated scales measuring single identity constructs, but this approach may not be sufficient to understand the dynamic representation of multiple identities within the individual.
Intersectionality: Various socially and culturally constructed categories like gender, race, class, and sexuality, interact on multiple levels simultaneously (Crenshaw, 1993), and different dual identities may result in different “perspectives and consequences for individuals" (Stirratt et al., 2008).
Several researchers have claimed that individuals maintain a hierarchy of multiple identities, and the prominence of identities varies according to situation. Utilizing cluster analyses, Stirratt et al. (2008) generated multiple identity models investigating the interconnections between race, gender, and sexuality. These models revealed that multiple identities can vary in valence and complexity, and these unique components of intersectional identities are negative correlated with depression, and positively correlated with social and psychological well-being.
Dual Identity Distress (DID)
Despite the importance of these findings, no scale exists to measure the experience of simultaneous multiple identities. The Dual Identity Distress Scale prompts participants to consider two identities (e.g., race, gender, occupation) simultaneously, and assesses the resulting distress (e.g., “When I am surrounded by Female individuals, I try to downplay occupation as a scientist”). There are two parts to the DID Scale, the qualitative open-ended reflection, and a 24-item Likert-type scale.Scale Development
Items were adapted from several preexisting identity scales, including those investigating race, gender, and sexuality (Phinney, 1992; Luhtanen & Crocker, 1990; Ross & Rosser, 1996). Expected dimensions include (1) Commitment/Pride/Centrality , (2) Exploration, (3) Public Regard. Items addressing identity preference or ranking were also included. Finally, an adapted PANAS was employed to assess emotional responses to the dual identity.Results
Quantitative Analyses
Participants were recruited using Mechanical Turk and were reimbursed 25¢. Participants were directed to the survey website, and responded to demographic questions including gender, race, and occupation. Participants were prompted to consider their Gender and Occupation simultaneously and rated their agreement (or disagreement) with several statements assessing this dual identity (e.g., “I have a clear sense of what it means to be a [Female Scientist]”).Study 1
Study 1 determines a relevant preliminary factor structure. Principle Axis Factoring with Varimax Orthogonal rotation was used in the initial Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA).- N = 233 (56% Female; 70% White; MAGE = 31.66, SDAGE = 12.39)
- Analyses reduced scale items into three easily interpretable factors: (1) Distress, (2) Positive Identification, and (3) Exploration. Although Negative Public Regard did not factor independently, it was retained as a separate and valid construct
- 3 Factor Solution accounts for 36.44% of the variance
- Fit Statistics
- Kaiser-Meyer Olkin (KMO) = .849
- Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity: X2(300) = 2,651.86 (p < .000)
Study 2
Study 2 evaluates the evidence of the reliability of the resultant factor structure and assesses the ability of the scale represent new data in a measurement model (CFA).- N = 248 (56% Female; 72% White; MAGE = 31.90, SDAGE = 11.64)
- Confirmatory analyses reveal that the model elicited in Study 1 was consistent across newly collected data. The three factors, distress, positive identification, and exploration emerged; however, exploration demonstrated less than optimal internal consistency.
- Fit Statistics
- Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity: X2(51) = 143.24 (p < .000)
- Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .92
- Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .09; CI90% = .07, .11
Study 3
To advance the most useful general scale for measuring dual identity distress, new data was collected to gather evidence of scale reliability and fit. Study 3 features Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) to examine the subscales for overall ability to represent independent data, and investigates the scale across multiple combinations and correlates the DID with validated scales including Sensation Seeking (Zuckerman, 1994) and Self-Esteem (Rosenberg, 1965).Participants were recruited via social networking sites and participant driven sampling. Participants visited the survey website and completed demographic measures, self-esteem, and sensation seeking. Participants then completed multiple iterations of the DID scale in random order, including Gender/Occupation, Race/Occupation, Race/Sexual Orientation, and Race/Nationality (USA).).
- N = 254 (65% Female, 53% White; MAGE = 28.83, SDAGE = 7.99);
Multiple iterations of the Dual Identity Distress Scale were investigated in parallel. Different patterns appeared between iterations, but 5 item groups consistently factored together. Other questions including behavioral tactics, identity ranking, self‐categorization, and importance were assessed as separate constructs. Table 1 reveals the reliability scores for each group of questions across different iterations.
- Public Discrimination (6 items; Average Alpha = .829)
- Negative Affect when considering the Dual Identity (5 items; Average Alpha = .897)
- Positive Identification with Dual Identity (6 items; Average Alpha = .702)
- Social Comfort with Dual Identity Interactions (3 items; Average Alpha = .581)
- Identity Preferences (4 items; Average Alpha = .392)
|
Construct |
Race & Occupation |
Gender & Occupation |
Race & Sexual Orientation |
Race & Nationality (USA) |
|
Negative Public Regard (i.e., *Public Discrimination)(6) |
.823 |
.826 |
.820 |
.845 |
|
Behavioral Interactions (3) |
.566 |
.486 |
.669 |
.602 |
|
Identity Ranking (4) |
.462 |
.467 |
.210 |
.430 |
|
*Negative Affect (5) |
.905 |
.897 |
.909 |
.876 |
|
Identity (4) |
.486 |
.519 |
.677 |
.642 |
|
*Identity w/ Positive Affect (6) |
.615 |
.681 |
.776 |
.736 |
There are 3 reliable components of Dual Identity Distress.
- Public Discrimination: “Discrimination against Latino Scientists is common.”
- Negative Affect: “When I think of being a Female Doctor, I am ashamed.”
- Positive Identification: “Being a White Lawyer is not important to my identity.”*
- RSE is negatively correlated with Negative Affect (rRACE/OCC = -.430**; rGENDER/OCC = -.384**)
- RSE is positively correlated with Positive Identification rRACE/OCC = .169*; rGENDER/OCC = .225**)
- Gender & Occupation (R2 = .062); DID-NA (∆R2 = .072)
- Race & Occupation (R2 = .084); DID-NA (∆ R2 = .100)
Table 2: Negative Affect correlation with self-esteem and change in variance (∆R2) from DID – Negative Affect subscale above individual identity components.
|
|
Gender & Occupation |
Race & Occupation |
Race & Sexual Orientation |
Race & Nationality (USA) |
|
Rosenberg |
-.396* |
-.330** |
-.272** |
-.394** |
|
Additional Variance |
∆R2 = .072 |
∆R2 = .100 |
ns |
∆R2 = .128 |
Race & Occupation
Negative public regard towards Race & Occupation was positively correlated with negative affect (r = .249**) and positive identification (r = .309*), indicating that perceived discrimination of one’s dual identity race and occupation is correlated with greater emotional responses, both positive and negative. There are significant differences between racial groups.- Public Discrimination: Whites are significantly lower than all other groups; Black participants are significantly higher compared to all other groups except Latinos.
- Positive Identification: Blacks are significantly higher than all other groups except Latinos
- Negative Affect: There are no significant differences between the groups
Race & Occupation DID was correlated with sensation seeking behavior; individuals perceiving racial discrimination may temper risky behavior in order to excel in their occupation.
- Participants who reported greater Public Discrimination against their dual identity also reported less thrill-seeking behavior (e.g., jumping out of a plane; r = -.180*)
- Participants who reported greater Positive Identification with their dual identity reported less disinhibitory, or socially questionable, behavior (e.g., unsafe sex; r = -.188*)
Gender & Occupation
There is a main effect of gender. Furthermore, thismain effect of gender on negative affect towards the dual identity was moderated by positive identification.- Women (M = 2.78) reported greater Public Discrimination compared to Men (M = 2.17): F(1,126) = 20.461, p < .001
- Women (M = 3.56) reported greater Positive Identification compared to Men (M = 3.27): F (1,123) = 7.325, p = .008
There is a significant interaction between gender and STEM: although women reported more negative public regard towards their dual identity of gender & occupation in general, Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) fields reported greater Public Discrimination compared to women not in STEM fields.
- Main effect of Gender: F(1,124) = 31.445, p < .001
- Main Effect of STEM: F(1,124) = 7.217, p = .008
- Effect of Gender * STEM: F(1,124) = 5.864, p = .017
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Race & Sexual Orientation
Alternatively, increased perceived discrimination against one’s Race & Sexual Orientation was positively correlated with greater intentions for future disinhibitory behavior, or behavior generally considered to be socially unacceptable (r = .221*), thus providing insight into the aforementioned trends among MCSM.Race & Nationality (USA)
Interestingly, Race & Nationality (USA) was the only iteration that correlated with television habits; increased viewing was correlated with greater positive identification and less negative affect across all racial groups.Results (Qualitative)
137 open-ended responses were coded by multiple coders to determine the overall identification style (i.e., Race/Gender Only, Occupation Only, Both – Integrated, Both – Non Integrated, or Neither), type of conflict reported by participants, and the presence of collective identity elements. In a review of preexisting identity measures, Ashmore, Deaux, & McLaughlin (2004) establish seven overarching collective identity elements: (1) self-categorization, (2) public and private evaluation, (3) importance, (4) attachment and interdependence, (5) social embeddedness, (6) behavioral involvement, and (7) content and meaning.Much of the prior research has focused on disadvantaged groups (e.g., Women in Science, Black and Latino Gay Men). The current research includes participants from majority and minority groups in order to better understand how identities interact in general, not just among those whose identities are assumed to conflict.
Whereas the elements listed above are based on scales assessing single identity, reflections of dual identity are expected to demonstrate a different pattern. Elements that emphasize the unique individual experience (e.g., personal narrative, cognitive involvement) will be more prominent as identities become more specific.
Identification Style
Non-Whites (69.2%) were more likely to be categorized as “Integrated” compared to Whites (32.4%) (.005); i.e., Non-Whites were more likely to discuss both their race and occupation, and address how these two identities affected each other..Whites (35.1%) were more likely to be categorized as “Occupation Only” compared Non-Whites (7.7%) (.016)
Women (65.8) were more like to be categorized as “Integrated” compared to men (38.9%) (.021)
General Conflict
Responses from Non-Whites (38.5%) were more likely than responses from Whites (8.1%) to be coded for general conflict (.003)Responses from females (31.6%) were more likely than responses from males (8.3%) to be coded for General Conflict (.013)
Types of Conflict
Public Conflict: Conflict experienced from individuals or structures of where the participant has no immediate contact.
"A common stereotype of Asian students is that they are smart and they are good at math, but they are socially awkward. I personally has had experience being stereotyped in this way, and I really don't like being over-generalized"
- Non-Whites (23.1%) were more likely than Whites to mention Public Conflict. (.038)
- There was no difference between genders.
"I have been silenced because of my gender in classrooms, considered less able by certain teachers, and have had assessments made not dependent on my academic abilities but on my gender."
- Non-Whites (30.8%) were more likely than Whites (8.1%) to mention Social Network Conflict. (.020)
- Females (39.5%) were more likely than males (13.9%) to report mention Social Network Conflict. (.013)
"I feel like I am not good enough or smart enough at times. As if I was able to succeed based on being attractive and friendly rather than talented."
- There was no difference between Whites and Non-Whites.
- There was no difference between genders.
"I have to graduate and go on to a professional degree because not many latinos have the opportunity I have. I will be the first in my family to do this."
- Non-Whites (23.1%) were more likely than Whites (2.7%) to report feelings of obligation. (.011)
- There was no difference between genders.
Elements of Collective Identity
Personal Narrative: The individual's mentally represented narrative of self as a member of a particular social category.- 65.1% of Race & Occupation
- 70.5% of Gender & Occupation
One of my bosses once said she was "pulling for me" so to speak because we were both black women and i guess it made her proud to see me do the work i do and to see that i'm intelligent. i appreciated it but at the same time there's so much more to me. I always walk that fine line of appreciating and disliking when people have the sort of sentiment that says "I'm proud of you, and even MORESO because you're black."
- The high presence of personal narratives may be attributed to the prompt, or the perceived uniqueness of the dual identity itself.
- Many responses alluded to their personal experiences as indicative of the entire group.
Self Categorization: Identifying as a member of the group or categorizing the self in terms of a particular social grouping.
- 54.0% of Race & Occupation
- 56.4% of Gender & Occupation
I have met male lawyers who vary along a continuum from complete assholes to thoughtful, empathetic, respectful people. I like to think I'm on the latter end of the continuum.
- This number may have been inflated due to the original prompt which asked participants to reflect on their identification with the dual identity.
- 28.6% of Race & Occupation
- 32.1% of Gender & Occupation
There are very few African American designers so to me I am proud to excel in an industry where there are very few individuals that look like me. I love it because through my work I can give a different perspective than other people because of my background.
- Many participants reflected on the experience of their dual identity independent of emotions (e.g., challenging, difficult); these responses were not coded as “affective.â€
- 28.6% of Race & Occupation
- 32.1% of Gender & Occupation
I often don't dwell on the gender identity of my professors, so I'm not sure it has had a strong effect on me personally.
- Content included a range of topics from personal experiences to politics.
- Non-Whites (.053) and females (.068) participants were more likely to report cognitive involvement.
- 19.5% of Race & Occupation
- 29.5% of Gender & Occupation
As a male lawyer, I feel often surrounded by testosterone junkies who are obsessed with the concept of winning or being a "winner" regardless of the impact on their clients or the integrity and efficacy of the system.
- Many respondents featured their impressions or expectations of other members of the dual identity, and several reported distain for other members.
- 14.3% of Race & Occupation
- 33.3% of Gender & Occupation
Being an African-American/Black Student is tough, because people don't take you seriously and think you got into higher education based on your race rather than your intelligence.
- This was often confounded with prototypicality. However, coders were instructed to focus on the narrative, or group story, not the group characteristics.
- 7.9% of Race & Occupation
- 14.1% of Gender & Occupation
I tend to have few female friends and get nervous about professionally interacting with other female med students. I've had several professional relationships go sour with female co-workers.
- Time spent at work may be considered behavioral involvement, but coders were instructed to focus on engaging with, or avoiding, other dual identity individuals independent of work.